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Welcome to this tutorial on Safety Using Control Flow with Pact.

While Pact is already a simple and safe language for smart contracts, there are a few patterns and recommendations you can follow to make it even simpler and even safer. Throughout the next few tutorials, we’ll discuss a few of these patterns.

In this tutorial, we’ll focus specifically on how Pact approaches control flow to ensure safety.

Topics covered in this tutorial

  • Control Flow
  • Project Setup
  • Unsafe/Safe Example #1
  • Unsafe/Safe Example #2
Key Takeaway

When writing Pact smart contracts, avoid using if statements. Instead, use enforce to ensure your code is both simpler and safer.

Safety Using Control Flow Tutorial

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Control Flow

Control flow is the order in which individual statements, instructions or function calls are evaluated.

In Pact, like in many languages, there are a few ways to approach control flow in your applications. Using Pact, you can use either if or enforce as a means to control the flow of your application. While you can technically use either, we recommend using enforce whenever possible. Using if is considered harmful to the application.

“If” considered harmful

Here is an example of an if statement using Pact.

pact> (if (= (+ 2 2) 4) "Don’t use if statements" "Use enforce instead")
"Don’t use if statements"
pact> (if (= (+ 2 2) 4) "Don’t use if statements" "Use enforce instead")
"Don’t use if statements"

Consider avoiding if whenever possible. Every branch makes code harder to understand, opening up the possibility of bugs in your code.

Pact History

Pact’s original design left out if altogether (and looping), but it was decided that users should be able to judiciously use these features as necessary.

Use enforce Instead

Enforce is considered a safer option for your smart contracts by making code simpler and less prone to bugs.

Here is an example of an enforce statement using Pact.

pact> (enforce (!= (+ 2 2) 4) "Stay Safe. Enforce the law.")
<interactive>:0:0: Stay safe. Enforce the law.
pact> (enforce (!= (+ 2 2) 4) "Stay Safe. Enforce the law.")
<interactive>:0:0: Stay safe. Enforce the law.

If should never be used to enforce business logic invariants. Instead, enforce is the right choice, which will fail the transaction.

Note

You can view more on Control Flow here.

Next, you will walk through a demonstration smart contract using if statements. You will then refactor these to use the safe option, enforce.

Code Demonstration

For this demonstration, we have built a smart contract named my-coin. This project represents a simple ledger system providing transfer, credit, debit, account creation, and querying. The goal of this demonstration is to develop a smart contract that adheres to the best control flow safety practices. You’ll work on this contract through the remainder of the tutorial.

Open Project Locally

To start, open your terminal and change into your project directory.

cd projectDirectory
cd projectDirectory

Clone the project repo.

git clone https://github.com/kadena-io/pact-lang.org-code.git
git clone https://github.com/kadena-io/pact-lang.org-code.git

Change into the control-flow project directory.

cd pact-lang.org-code/safety/control-flow
cd pact-lang.org-code/safety/control-flow

Open the project in atom.

atom .
atom .

View the Project

In this project you should see both the my-coin.pact and my-coin.repl files.

1-project-file
1-project-file

Within the my-coin.pact file you will see both unsafe and safe alternatives for this program. You can view the completed files in the complete folder and the code challenges from within the challenge folder.

Throughout the rest of this tutorial, I’ll work in the challenge folder and demonstrate the 2 examples from this file. First, by writing the unsafe alternative using if, then by writing the safer alternative using enforce.

Demonstration #1: Unsafe

Starting in the debit-if function, you can see that there is an opportunity to use an if statement.

Taking a step back, you’ll see that this function is meant to debit a certain AMOUNT from an ACCOUNT balance while recording both the DATE and DATA. The opportunity for the if statement is at the point where we need to check if the balance is sufficient for the transfer.

  ;; Debit using if
  (defun debit-if:string (account:string amount:decimal)
    @doc "Debit AMOUNT from ACCOUNT balance recording DATE and DATA"
      (with-read my-coin-table account
        { "balance" := balance }
        ;;Check if balance is sufficient for the transfer
          ;;STEP 1: UNSAFE IF STATEMENT GOES HERE
          ;;STEP 2: If condition is true, update my-coin-table
 
 
          ;;STEP 3:If condition is false, print message
 
         )
  ;; Debit using if
  (defun debit-if:string (account:string amount:decimal)
    @doc "Debit AMOUNT from ACCOUNT balance recording DATE and DATA"
      (with-read my-coin-table account
        { "balance" := balance }
        ;;Check if balance is sufficient for the transfer
          ;;STEP 1: UNSAFE IF STATEMENT GOES HERE
          ;;STEP 2: If condition is true, update my-coin-table
 
 
          ;;STEP 3:If condition is false, print message
 
         )

As you can see, we want to check that the amount being transferred is greater than the balance.

STEP 1: Write If Statement

A perfectly unsafe way to do this would be to write an if statement as shown here.

(if (> balance amount)
(if (> balance amount)

STEP 2: If the Condition is TRUE

If the statement is true, meaning the balance is sufficient to make the transfer, the if statement will go on to update the account from within the my-coin-table.

(update my-coin-table account
    { "balance" : (- balance amount) })
(update my-coin-table account
    { "balance" : (- balance amount) })

STEP 3: If the Condition is FALSE If the statement is false, meaning the balance is insufficient to make the transfer, send an error message.

 ;;If condition is false, print message
 "Balance is not sufficient for transfer" ))
 ;;If condition is false, print message
 "Balance is not sufficient for transfer" ))

Final If Statement Code

Here is a look at the final code.

   ;; Debit using if
  (defun debit-if:string (account:string amount:decimal)
    @doc "Debit AMOUNT from ACCOUNT balance"
      (with-read my-coin-table account
        { "balance" := balance }
        ;;Check if balance is sufficient for the transfer
        (if (> balance amount)
          ;;If condition is true, update my-coin-table
          (update my-coin-table account
            { "balance" : (- balance amount) })
          ;;If condition is false, print message
          "Balance is not sufficient for transfer" )))
   ;; Debit using if
  (defun debit-if:string (account:string amount:decimal)
    @doc "Debit AMOUNT from ACCOUNT balance"
      (with-read my-coin-table account
        { "balance" := balance }
        ;;Check if balance is sufficient for the transfer
        (if (> balance amount)
          ;;If condition is true, update my-coin-table
          (update my-coin-table account
            { "balance" : (- balance amount) })
          ;;If condition is false, print message
          "Balance is not sufficient for transfer" )))

This is a clear case where it feels like if makes sense to use in your code. However, for reasons mentioned earlier, we’d like to remove if from our code in favor of enforce.

Demonstration #1: Safe

Now, let’s refactor this code using enforce. In this case, the function is similar but we’ll make the safe decision and use enforce.

  ;; refactor with enforce
  (defun debit:string (account:string amount:decimal)
    @doc "Debit AMOUNT from ACCOUNT balance"
      (with-read my-coin-table account
        { "balance" := balance }
        ;;STEP 1: Enforce the condition, and fail transaction if condition doesn't meet.
 
        ;;STEP 2: Update the balance.
 
 
        )
  ;; refactor with enforce
  (defun debit:string (account:string amount:decimal)
    @doc "Debit AMOUNT from ACCOUNT balance"
      (with-read my-coin-table account
        { "balance" := balance }
        ;;STEP 1: Enforce the condition, and fail transaction if condition doesn't meet.
 
        ;;STEP 2: Update the balance.
 
 
        )

As you can see, you’ll need to enforce the condition without using an if statement, then update the my-coin-table as you had done previously.

STEP 1: Write Enforce Statement

To start, enforce that the balance is greater than the amount being sent and fail the transaction if the condition isn’t met.

;; Enforce the condition, and fail transaction if condition doesn't meet.
(enforce (> balance amount) "Balance is not sufficient for transfer")
;; Enforce the condition, and fail transaction if condition doesn't meet.
(enforce (> balance amount) "Balance is not sufficient for transfer")

This step is very similar to the if statement but allows us to finish the function using simpler logic.

STEP 2: Update the my-coin-table Table

Since the enforce statement handled the failing scenario, you can now write the update to the my-coin-table account assuming that the enforce statement has passed. Update the balance of the account in my-coin-table to be the balance minus the amount sent.

(update my-coin-table account
    { "balance" : (- balance amount) }))
(update my-coin-table account
    { "balance" : (- balance amount) }))

Final Enforce Statement

By using enforce, you no longer need to create branching logic dependent on the outcome of the if statement.

  ;; refactor with enforce
  (defun debit:string (account:string amount:decimal)
    @doc "Debit AMOUNT from ACCOUNT balance"
      (with-read my-coin-table account
        { "balance" := balance }
        ;; Enforce the condition, and fail transaction if condition doesn't meet.
        (enforce (> balance amount) "Balance is not sufficient for transfer")
        ;;Update the balance.
        (update my-coin-table account
          { "balance" : (- balance amount) })))
  ;; refactor with enforce
  (defun debit:string (account:string amount:decimal)
    @doc "Debit AMOUNT from ACCOUNT balance"
      (with-read my-coin-table account
        { "balance" := balance }
        ;; Enforce the condition, and fail transaction if condition doesn't meet.
        (enforce (> balance amount) "Balance is not sufficient for transfer")
        ;;Update the balance.
        (update my-coin-table account
          { "balance" : (- balance amount) })))

Keep this pattern in mind and use enforce rather than if to create simpler, safer Pact code.

Demonstration #2: Unsafe

Next, I’ll walk through another demonstration showing the difference between if and enforce. This is another situation where it may be tempting to use if. Though it is a similar idea, there are a few subtle differences in this demonstration that will be valuable to understand.

Here is a look at the starting code.

  ;;TEMPTING USE of "IF" (type 2)
  (defun credit-if:string (account:string keyset:keyset amount:decimal)
    @doc "Credit AMOUNT to ACCOUNT balance"
 
   ;;STEP 1: Fetch all keys in my-coin-table and see if account exists.
 
 
    ;;STEP 2: if the row exists, check keyset and update the balance
 
 
       ;;STEP 3: If the keysets do match, update the balance.
       ;;Otherwise, print error message.
 
 
 
 
 
    ;;STEP 4: if the row does not exist, insert a row into the table.
 
 
 
      ))
  ;;TEMPTING USE of "IF" (type 2)
  (defun credit-if:string (account:string keyset:keyset amount:decimal)
    @doc "Credit AMOUNT to ACCOUNT balance"
 
   ;;STEP 1: Fetch all keys in my-coin-table and see if account exists.
 
 
    ;;STEP 2: if the row exists, check keyset and update the balance
 
 
       ;;STEP 3: If the keysets do match, update the balance.
       ;;Otherwise, print error message.
 
 
 
 
 
    ;;STEP 4: if the row does not exist, insert a row into the table.
 
 
 
      ))

As you can see, you’ll need to check that an account exists, update its balance if the row exists or if the keysets match, or insert a row if it does not exist. Each of these cases make it tempting to use if. For that reason, I’ll walk through now coding each line using if statements.

Step 1: Check that Account Exists

First, fetch all keys in my-coin-table to see if the account exists.

;;STEP 1: Fetch all keys in my-coin-table and see if account exists.If true, go to step 2, or else go to step 4
(if (contains account (keys my-coin-table))
;;STEP 1: Fetch all keys in my-coin-table and see if account exists.If true, go to step 2, or else go to step 4
(if (contains account (keys my-coin-table))

Step 2: Update Balance if Row Exists

Within the if statement, check the keyset and update the balance if it is found that the row exists.

    ;;STEP 2: if the row exists, bind variables
    (with-read my-coin-table account { "balance":= balance,
                                       "keyset":= retk }
    ;;STEP 2: if the row exists, bind variables
    (with-read my-coin-table account { "balance":= balance,
                                       "keyset":= retk }

Step 3: Update Balance if Keysets Match

Then, if the keysets match update the balance.

       ;;STEP 3: If the keysets do match, update the balance.
       ;;Otherwise, print error message.
       (if (= retk keyset)
         (update my-coin-table account {
           "balance": (+ amount balance)})
         "The keysets do not match" ))
       ;;STEP 3: If the keysets do match, update the balance.
       ;;Otherwise, print error message.
       (if (= retk keyset)
         (update my-coin-table account {
           "balance": (+ amount balance)})
         "The keysets do not match" ))

Step 4: Insert Row if it Does not Exist

Next, if the row does not exist, insert the balance and keyset into the account on my-coin-table.

    ;;STEP 4: if the row does not exist, insert a row into the table.
    (insert my-coin-table account{
       "balance": amount,
       "keyset": keyset
      }))
    ;;STEP 4: if the row does not exist, insert a row into the table.
    (insert my-coin-table account{
       "balance": amount,
       "keyset": keyset
      }))

Final Unsafe Code Using If

Looking back at the final code, we can see that it is working, but that it is using an unsafe if statement. This is causing logic that is more complicated than necessary and is something that would be better written using enforce.

  ;;TEMPTING USE of "IF" (type 2)
  (defun credit-if:string (account:string keyset:keyset amount:decimal)
    @doc "Credit AMOUNT to ACCOUNT balance recording DATE and DATA"
 
   ;;STEP 1: Fetch all keys in my-coin-table and see if account exists.
   (if (contains account (keys my-coin-table))
 
    ;;STEP 2: if the row exists, check keyset and update the balance
    (with-read my-coin-table account { "balance":= balance,
                                       "keyset":= retk }
       ;;STEP 3: If the keysets do match, update the balance.
       ;;Otherwise, print error message.
       (if (= retk keyset)
         (update my-coin-table account {
           "balance": (+ amount balance)})
         "The keysets do not match" ))
 
    ;;STEP 4: if the row does not exist, insert a row into the table.
    (insert my-coin-table account{
       "balance": amount,
       "keyset": keyset
      })))
  ;;TEMPTING USE of "IF" (type 2)
  (defun credit-if:string (account:string keyset:keyset amount:decimal)
    @doc "Credit AMOUNT to ACCOUNT balance recording DATE and DATA"
 
   ;;STEP 1: Fetch all keys in my-coin-table and see if account exists.
   (if (contains account (keys my-coin-table))
 
    ;;STEP 2: if the row exists, check keyset and update the balance
    (with-read my-coin-table account { "balance":= balance,
                                       "keyset":= retk }
       ;;STEP 3: If the keysets do match, update the balance.
       ;;Otherwise, print error message.
       (if (= retk keyset)
         (update my-coin-table account {
           "balance": (+ amount balance)})
         "The keysets do not match" ))
 
    ;;STEP 4: if the row does not exist, insert a row into the table.
    (insert my-coin-table account{
       "balance": amount,
       "keyset": keyset
      })))

This code can be refactored using enforce.

Demonstration #2: Safe

Take some time now to reconsider the code you wrote previously. Read through the new comments and decide how you may be able to approach writing this same logic with enforce rather than if.

  ;;refactor with with-default-read & write & enforce
  (defun credit:string (account:string keyset:keyset amount:decimal)
    @doc "Credit AMOUNT to ACCOUNT balance recording DATE and DATA"
 
    ;;STEP 1: Default the row to balance at 0.0 and keyset at input keyset
    ;;If row exists, then bind balance and keyset value from the table.
    ;;This allows one time key lookup - increases efficiency.
 
 
 
      ;;STEP 2: Check that the input keyset is the same as the row's keyset
 
 
      ;;STEP 3: Writes the row to the table. (write adds the table with the key and the row.
 
 
 
 
)
  ;;refactor with with-default-read & write & enforce
  (defun credit:string (account:string keyset:keyset amount:decimal)
    @doc "Credit AMOUNT to ACCOUNT balance recording DATE and DATA"
 
    ;;STEP 1: Default the row to balance at 0.0 and keyset at input keyset
    ;;If row exists, then bind balance and keyset value from the table.
    ;;This allows one time key lookup - increases efficiency.
 
 
 
      ;;STEP 2: Check that the input keyset is the same as the row's keyset
 
 
      ;;STEP 3: Writes the row to the table. (write adds the table with the key and the row.
 
 
 
 
)

As you can see, you will again need to check that an account exists, update its balance if the row exists or if the keysets match, or insert a row if it does not exist. You can do all of this using enforce as shown below.

Step 1: Create Efficient One Time Key Lookup

To start, you will need to reorder the code slightly.

You’ll start by setting the default row balance to 0.0 and a keyset at input keyset. If the row exists, then bind the balance and keyset value from the table.

    ;;STEP 1: Default the row to balance at 0.0 and keyset at input keyset
    ;;If row exists, then bind balance and keyset value from the table.
    ;;This allows one time key lookup - increases efficiency.
    (with-default-read my-coin-table account
      { "balance": 0.0, "keyset": keyset }
      { "balance":= balance, "keyset":= retg }
    ;;STEP 1: Default the row to balance at 0.0 and keyset at input keyset
    ;;If row exists, then bind balance and keyset value from the table.
    ;;This allows one time key lookup - increases efficiency.
    (with-default-read my-coin-table account
      { "balance": 0.0, "keyset": keyset }
      { "balance":= balance, "keyset":= retg }

This is more efficient than the previous code and allows for a one time key lookup.

Previous Code Using If

As a comparison, look back at steps 2 and 4 from the earlier code you wrote. Take some time to understand how the code above is combining each of these steps by allowing for a single lookup.

    …code
 
    ;;STEP 2: if the row exists, check keyset and update the balance
    (with-read my-coin-table account { "balance":= balance,
                                       "keyset":= retk }
 
    …code
 
    ;;STEP 4: if the row does not exist, insert a row into the table.
    (insert my-coin-table account{
       "balance": amount,
       "keyset": keyset
    …code
    …code
 
    ;;STEP 2: if the row exists, check keyset and update the balance
    (with-read my-coin-table account { "balance":= balance,
                                       "keyset":= retk }
 
    …code
 
    ;;STEP 4: if the row does not exist, insert a row into the table.
    (insert my-coin-table account{
       "balance": amount,
       "keyset": keyset
    …code

Step 2: Check Input Key vs Row’s Keyset

Next, use enforce to check that the input keyset is the same as the row’s keyset. If not, return that the account guards do not match.

      ;;STEP 2: Check that the input keyset is the same as the row's keyset
      (enforce (= retg keyset)
        "account guards do not match")
      ;;STEP 2: Check that the input keyset is the same as the row's keyset
      (enforce (= retg keyset)
        "account guards do not match")

Step 3: Write Row to Table

Finally, write the account balance and keyset to a row in the my-coin-table.

      ;;STEP 3: Writes the row to the table. (write adds the table with the key and the row.
      (write my-coin-table account
        { "balance" : (+ balance amount)
        , "keyset"   : retg
        })))
      ;;STEP 3: Writes the row to the table. (write adds the table with the key and the row.
      (write my-coin-table account
        { "balance" : (+ balance amount)
        , "keyset"   : retg
        })))

Final Enforce Statement

Looking back at the final version of the code, you can see that we have completed the same logic without ever using an if statement. This again allows for simpler logic and can help you write safer code.

  ;;refactor with with-default-read & write & enforce
  (defun credit:string (account:string keyset:keyset amount:decimal)
    @doc "Credit AMOUNT to ACCOUNT balance recording DATE and DATA"
 
    ;;STEP 1: Default the row to balance at 0.0 and keyset at input keyset
    ;;If row exists, then bind balance and keyset value from the table.
    ;;This allows one time key lookup - increases efficiency.
    (with-default-read my-coin-table account
      { "balance": 0.0, "keyset": keyset }
      { "balance":= balance, "keyset":= retg }
      ;;STEP 2: Check that the input keyset is the same as the row's keyset
      (enforce (= retg keyset)
        "account guards do not match")
      ;;STEP 3: Writes the row to the table. (write adds the table with the key and the row.
      (write my-coin-table account
        { "balance" : (+ balance amount)
        , "keyset"   : retg
        })))
)
  ;;refactor with with-default-read & write & enforce
  (defun credit:string (account:string keyset:keyset amount:decimal)
    @doc "Credit AMOUNT to ACCOUNT balance recording DATE and DATA"
 
    ;;STEP 1: Default the row to balance at 0.0 and keyset at input keyset
    ;;If row exists, then bind balance and keyset value from the table.
    ;;This allows one time key lookup - increases efficiency.
    (with-default-read my-coin-table account
      { "balance": 0.0, "keyset": keyset }
      { "balance":= balance, "keyset":= retg }
      ;;STEP 2: Check that the input keyset is the same as the row's keyset
      (enforce (= retg keyset)
        "account guards do not match")
      ;;STEP 3: Writes the row to the table. (write adds the table with the key and the row.
      (write my-coin-table account
        { "balance" : (+ balance amount)
        , "keyset"   : retg
        })))
)

Take a moment now to look back and compare both versions of this code. Ensure that you keep these patterns in mind as you write your own code.

my-coin.repl

In my-coin.repl file, you can check that the failing cases of debit-if and credit-if are tested with expect ... by checking if the output matches the expected failure message. The refactored code allows us to test with expect-failure ...to check if the function succeeds or not.

Note

For more information on running .repl files from Atom, see the tutorial Contract Interaction > Run REPL File.

Review

That wraps up this tutorial on Pact safety using control flow.

Throughout this tutorial, you learned that using enforce can help make your the control flow of your Pact smart contracts even simpler and safer. You went over a few demonstrations teaching you ways to avoid using if statements in favor of enforce.

This is one of a few key patterns that you can use to improve the safety of your smart contracts. Coming up, we’ll go over a few more safety tips to keep in mind as you develop Pact smart contracts.

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